ROMAN ARMY
The Roman army was based on infantry, which for hundreds of years was the most perfect formation of this type (up to the Modern times). The Roman soldier had at his disposal the most balanced armaments of all ancient warriors. His equipment included a lethal gladius, which was responsible for the largest number of deaths until the time of introduction of firearms. The best in history (even better than Napoleonic generals) staff cared for the smallest details of his training and accommodation. Great way of the military allowed him to the quick movement of the great Roman Empire, and the iron discipline and excellent training for years made him the winner in clashes with different enemies who were using various fighting styles.
The beginnings of Rome are hidden around myths, which had been borrowed from Greeks legends. Legendary date of foundation of Rome was 753 year. Settlement on the ground on which the city was founded, is dating back to the tenth century thou. Initially, it was a defensive settlement on a hill. The settlement was made up for protection of shepherds and their cattle. The specific location at the crossroads of different Italic nations (the Latins, Etruscans and Sabines) had contributed to rapid increase of the settlement population. Probably around the year 600, Rome was brought under control of the Etruscans, who gave the city a name derived from a family of Etruscan origin - Ruma. In the meantime, it is likely to appeared the name "the Romans".
At the beginning, the Roman army was formed by the rich residents of the city, who were going on war expeditions with their own soldiers. The actual fight consisted of many individual skirmishes and there was not a deeper tactical foundations. The city was able to mobilized about 3000 infantrymen and 300 cavalrymen all together. Etruscan king Servius Tullius (578-543 B C), who had earlier earned for life as a mercenary, introduced in Rome a fighting style based on the Greek phalanx. Such formation, had been already used in Italy by the Etruscans who had adopted it from the Greek colonists. Soldiers had at their disposal a round shield (clipeus), sword (from 33 to 56 centimetres long ) and a spear called hasta. They were protected by heavy brown armour. The Roman heavy infantry was made up of the wealthier citizens, which had an obligation to secure for themself equipment and food for the duration of war. A similar obligation fell on the poorer citizens who fought as light infantrymen.
The Etruscan ruler also conducted a thorough organisational changes in the army, dividing it into units (centuries), according to the soldier's wealth. The army was divided into legions, which in themselves made up a small army. Every legion had its own craftsmen, which made it capable of independent action. The legion was made up by 30 maniples (1 maniple accounted for 2 centuries). This made up of 4200 infantry soldiers together (3000 hoplites and 1200 light infantrymen) and 300 riders. The Roman society was divided into 5 classes, according to wealth. Serving at individual centuries depended on wealth. This was justified by the fact that each soldier had to provide for himself food (at least at the beginning of a campaign) and armaments. For this reason, the richest class made up the heavy infantry (80 centuries). In addition, 18 centuries were made up from equites (rich burghers). People of the moderate means created 20 centuries (second class property). The third and forth classes made up 20 centuries, the fifth, the poorest on, 30. With increase in the number of inhabitants of the city and emigration, Rome was able to create additional centuries: 2 blacksmiths and carpenters, 3 trumpeters and 1 additional mixed. Partly it was possible by giving the nationality to migrants, in return for an obligation to military service. These reforms helped gradually crate a bigger army (for example, from two legions in the year 367 to four in 311).
The Roman army in the period of conquest of the Apennine Peninsula, owned it successes superiority of war craft and art of management of their country over their enemies. The army which conquered Italy, did not differ substantially from the armies of other states - Greek cities. To the limits was used, however, the mobilisation capacities of the city. Also the Romans were prepared to every war expeditions very carefully (as opposed to some of their neighbours, who treated war only to temporary purposes and sometimes even as an entertainment). Additional factors influencing the Roman success like high trained soldiers, discipline, drill, very harsh penalty system, which reigned in the army ( the flagellation, the decimating of not even necessarily cowardly squads), played a crucial role too.
In the 391 year the Gauls defeated an Roman army near Rome. The city was captured and the phalanx had proved to be highly ineffective in clash with quick Celts, armed with long swords. The Romans lost for a time their dominant position among neighbours. The phalanx did not also proved to be effective against a mountain race of Samnites. This battle and the fights against the Samnites accelerated further military reforms. Immobile, stiff phalanx was replaced by a more effective in direct clash and much more flexible during manoeuvres, a new formation (unknown is the exact date of its introduction). Than was created the most perfect so far in the ancient history (and for the next 1500 years) in relation to effectiveness - formation of infantry. The Roman soldier for the first time fought in armed formations, while retaining the freedom to manoeuvre as an individual soldier. He is also the first soldier, who used sword (deadly gladius), as the main weapons of direct contact. So far it had been spear. The infantry was still the heavy one, but fighting no longer as phalanx, but maniple (later after further reforms in 99 years B C - cohort). A maniple consisted of 160 soldiers, who were divided into two (80 men) centuries, which stood to the battle parallel to each other.
Innovation was the introduction of gaps among individual squads and soldiers of legion, what gave the whole formation, as well as individual soldiers, a significant opportunity to manoeuvre. Each maniple made up an independent phalanx wide for 20 soldiers and deep for 6 men. A gap (about 5 square meters) among individual soldiers, was necessary to free use of the sword. Individual maniple were fighting in the same line, standing apart from each other in about 18 meters distance, which gave them large possibility of manoeuvre. Before battle the whole army was formed in three lines, which occupy positions in a certain distance from each other (about 100 meters). The maniples from the second and third line, covered the gaps among the first troops. During the fight the army conducted according to the principle of "two lines forward, one backward." This meant that the main weight of fight rested on the first two lines. The third, consisting of veterans and old soldiers, was the reserve, which was used only if needed. This concept made it possible to fight both the army dispersed, and compact. The battle always started the first line, whose task was to break the enemy's lines. In the event of difficulties with the help came manipu3y second line. The first line could also, in the case of massive soldiers' fatigue, withdraw t between the second line's gaps. There, the soldiers could rest before continuing the fight. Then the second line moved forward, aiming to break the enemy's lines. This Manoeuvre could be repeated several times until the army succeeded. It was additionally effective, because no other ancient army worked out any tactical withdraw the first lines and replacing them with fresh troops. Enemy's tired soldiers had to fight against new Roman squads. In case of necessity of retreat, gaps among individual Roman lines allowed Roman soldiers to withdraw at the back in order. So far, withdraw of almost any ancient army meant chaotic escape. Thanks to the substantial autonomy of individual legions or maniples, even breaking one of them did not mean defeat of all army. Other units, knowing their place, were able to continue the fight alone, fending off attacks from all sides. the end of superiority of Roman infantry was not until the battle against barbarian cavalry at the battle of Adrianople (378 A D).
With the change of formation, appeared to continue the reforms that make the Roman army an extremely an effective conquests tool. The flanks of heavy maniples had been strengthened not only by light infantrymen and horsemen, but also slingers and javelin throwers. The Romans were also able to learn even from the defeated enemies. Thanks to that the Roman infantryman had the most balanced armaments of all the ancient armies. In summary, the shield (scutum) had been borrowed from Gaul (converted from round to rectangular in the maniple formation), heavy javelin (pilum) from Samnites, sword, gladius, (both for cutting as well as for pushing) most probably from Celtiberians (Spaniards) .
Along with conquest of whole Italy, the Roman army was significantly increased. Half of the Roman army consisted of the Italic allies' squads (different Italic nations troops) who, in their agreements with Rome, were obliged to provide adequate military contingents. In exchange, they were almost (or) totally exempted from taxes. More backward and agricultural tribes had to deliver particularly large quotas. Italic nations made up usually auxiliary troops (light horsemen, archers, slingers, light infantry), consisting of 500 or 1000 soldiers in one unit. The role of the allies increased with the expansion of Rome beyond the Apennine Peninsula. The Romans did not trust the subjected nations and did not believe in their capacity to subordination and harsh military discipline. For this reason, Romans did not recruit soldiers from the conquered countries. In these countries they garrisoned occupying units consisting of their Italian allies. The allies of Rome were not for that reason happy, especially since Rome refused them the right to obtain Roman citizenship. This situation changed after so-called Allied War (91 - 89 B C), which levelled in rights the Italian nations and the Romans. In order to ensure a sufficient number of soldiers for expanding country, consul Gaius Marius (156 - 86 B C) softened recruits' property criteria, allowing in exceptional cases, to recruit for the army the people who had no land. It would have enormous consequences in future for the country since the soldiers were keeping hope that their commanders will ensure them a land and decent life after their service is done. This process was exacerbated and intensified during civil wars, when ambitious Roman generals had to based their political ambitions on the army. The Roman army was was more and more faithful to its commanders then the lawful authority. Gaius Marius also established first Roman professional army. The soldiers began to receive a payment for the service and veterans a piece of land. During this period, legions were reorganized also. One legion consisted of 10 cohorts. One cohort contained 3 maniples, one maniple was formed from six centuries. A legion numbered 6200 soldiers.
A huge numerical increase of the Roman army was at record level during Triumvirates and civil wars (I B C - I A D). At the peak of that time in the country there were 60 legions (around 500 thousand soldiers). This figure was a huge burden to the state budget. For this reason, the first Roman emperor, Octavian August (63 B C - 14 A D), decreased the legions number to 28. Nevertheless, the huge territory of the empire demanded gradually enlarging the army again. In the final period of the reign of Augustus, the Roman army had (according to different estimates) 250 - 300 of thousands of troops, defending the territory close to 6 thousand kilometres and population of 70 - 100 million (also according to different estimates). Most legions were located in the most sensitive points of the empire, between the Rhine and the Danube as well in Syria, Spain (3 legions) and Egypt (2). During the peace times, the army was restrained to patrolling and guarding tasks. It was stationed in camps made from hewed stones at border points. Soldiers also built many fortifications, for example, on the Rhine, Hadrian's Wall, Antony Wall (Britain). Long fortifications also ran in African province of the Empire and the East (from the upper Euphrates to the south). These fortification protected the Empire but only against smaller groups of warriors, usually nomads. In practice, such fortifications and deployment of troops meant that in a case of a larger war, the Romans were able to fight effectively only on one front. This required a swift movements of legions in the direction of dangered parts of the country. For this reason, the amount of cavalry and supporting troops was increased, which now numbered half of the army. Wars against the Parthians, Germanic Marcomanni, rebellions at the rear of the army in the same time, however, revealed the insufficiency of the reserve system. The army tried to find a way out of these difficulties by relocating the troop from peaceful areas to the dangerous ones. The Romans also were building roads to accelerate the movement of troops between the various frontier sections.
The Romans became famous for their very good quality road network, which netted the whole Empire. The first road, which served military purposes, was built during the Samnite Wars (343 - 298 B C). It ran from Rome to Capua, and its length was more than 212 kilometres. The difficulties of land were levelled or removed, over swamps and rivers bridges were built in the shape of aqueducts, shallow river crossing were, on the other hand, cobbled. Along with conquering western parts of Europe, the Romans netted all the West with military roads. In total there were built more than 386 thousand kilometres of roads, of which over 64 thousand were cobbled ones. During rainless weather, a Roman legion could move at a speed of nearly 13 km per day. Speed that increased to 45 kilometres on paved roads in difficult wet conditions. In a case of lack of any roads, the movement in rainy weather was nearly impossible.
In days of the empire, the Romans maintained compulsory recruitment, which Octavian extended to residents of non Italian provinces, including the newly conquered. Nevertheless volunteer system predominated. The auxiliary squads were recruited mainly from occupants of Gallia (currently in France), backward regions of Spain and other allies (the Thracians and Batavi warriors). These soldiers, served in auxiliary squads for 25 years. They were paid 75 denarii a year. Legions still were recruited among Italian inhabitants (mainly from North) as well from southern regions of romanized Gaul and southern Spain. Legionaries were also much better paid (225 pence per annum) and served in the army for shorter time (20 years) than other troopers. Veterans received huge allowances and plots of land, which were a huge burden on the state treasury. A slightly different situation was in the east part of the Empire, where Roman soldiers were already a small percentage of the army. The problem was partially solved by giving the soldiers (informally), after joining a legion, Roman citizenship. After required time of service the citizenship was granted officially.
In the second century Italy provided so little recruits that only the emperor's guard, the praetorians units, consisted of Italy inhabitants. Legions and auxiliaries consisted of almost exclusively the inhabitants of the provinces. To the Rome army were mostly recruited the sons of former legionaries who were brought up in neighbourhoods of the camp, where their fathers had served. Legions were not barbarian yet. From the time of Emperor Hadrian to the Severan dynasty, soldiers were recruited only to a small degree from the area of the Rhine, Danube and the East. Western element still reigned. Auxiliary units, however, were already controlled by soldiers poorly romanized who spoke their own languages, fought with their own style and used their traditional weapons. Statistically 65% of the Roman army, in the days of Emperor Augustus, was recruited in Italy, during the rule of Claudius and Nero - 48, 7%, Vespasian and Trajan's - 21.4%, from Hadrian to 200 A D - only 0.9%. These figures reflect the processes occurring in the ethnic composition of the Rome army. The recruits' deficit forced emperors to more concessions. Septimius Severus (146 - 211 A D) increased the number of army (for three more legions) and gave inhabitants of province the right to praetorian service ( from now praetorians came especially from the Danube province). Legionaries were also allowed to get marred (which was legalization of the existing state of affairs), which in turn provided new recruits, as sons usually chosen the profession of their fathers. Soldiers' pay also increased from 300 to 500 denarii and began to give in lease the land to the soldiers who stationed at the borders. The frequent civil wars and fighting against external enemies destroy the most valuable Italic element. Emperor Diocletian (245 - 313 A D) was forced to introduce the law imposing the obligation to inherit by sons the profession of their fathers, what also affected military families. Also was increased the mobility of troops and was made a re-localisation of the army (Diocletian and Constantine the Great). Army was divided into border troops and field army garrisoned in the depths of the country as a reserve. The number of cavalry was also increased. A typical unit consisted of 1000 infantrymen and 500 riders. (after the example of auxiliary units). The number of troops amounted to more than 435 thousand, of which 200 thousand made up field army. All soldiers were grouped in 60 legions which, in number usually two, stationed in each province of the Empire.
In terms of command, the head of the Roman army initially rested on consuls, appointed by Senate (time of the Republic). They called up so many soldiers under arms, as it was considered necessary. Every citizen, from 17 to 46 years of age, could find himself on the mobilization list (up to 20 times, which meant so many campaigns). Cadets schools provided the officers from school facilities which were set up in many Italic cities. Each senior officer had his own staff, who carefully collected the history of service of every single soldier. Collected informations where related to his payments, training, medical research, awards, etc. The legionary administration sought all informations ranging from intelligence activities to supplies for the army until the horses' veterinary care. Romans, like Assyrians, crated the most perfect headquarters, which was not even equal by Napoleonic armies.
Deprived of sufficient protection by cavalry, the Roman legionnaires lived (or died), by their ability to use the sword and shield in frames of a larger group. This complexity of Roman fighting tactics required not only a good training but also considerable intelligence from soldiers. A soldier should respond instantly to commands, change formations. For these reasons, the officers who were enlisting soldiers paid attention to the fact, whether the soldiers were able to write, read and perform some math exercises. The ones who were the most intelligent could become lieutenants and officers. In the year 105 B C was introduced a special program of training the army, which was based on the current system of training professional gladiators. In addition, each legion had its own training methods, which were inculcated throughout soldiers' lives. Along with the process of barbarisation the army, appeared the decline in the quality of local recruits. Roman army became a mixture of Germanic prisoners of war, which were located in different regions of the country, Germanic mercenaries, fighting under the command of their own, and the population of the Empire (coming almost exclusively from the villages). Recruits were appointed by landowners, who were obliged to supply recruits to the army and who were not keen on sending their best workers. Instead, they often gave away not suitable for work weaklings. In III and IV century Roman soldiers did not know iron discipline any more, did not want to wear heavy armaments, they were not willing to exercises and drill. Many troops were more and more prone to mutinies and murders. The lack of incentives, which accounted for granting the Rome citizenship in exchange for service, caused that the army had to recruit primitive people (from 212 year each inhabitant was a citizen of the Roman Empire). The last great victory, already with a huge help of Germanic Visigoths, the Roman army gained in 451 on the Catalaunian Plains in the fight against the Huns. It is characteristic that even after this battle, the Germanic allies and the Roman shown hostility and distrust to each other. In the year 476 the Roman Empire finally ceased to exist. One of the Germanic chiefs, Odoacer, overthrew the last emperor of Rome. This fact passed in the world almost without unnoticed. Thus ended a period of antiquity in the history of mankind.
