ASSYRIAN ARMY
The Assyrian army became famous for its extraordinary cruelty and military effectiveness. For the first time it was a strictly professional formation which introduced or improved a number of military innovations. The Assyrians for the first time, on a large scale, armed their army in iron, introduced large, organized units of horsemen, descent troops and sapper units. The army was commanded by professional officers and military staff. Assyrian siege art for hundreds of years was the best in the world and the Assyrian logistics, until the time of the Roman Empire, was the most advanced in the world. The Assyrians launched of construction of military roads, built great military warehouses and also divided their army into field and reserve troops.
Before conquests the Assyrians lived in small communities, most probably nomadic, which then settled down in north Mesopotamian city of Assur. Originally the city was inhabited by a population of Hurrian origin, and later by Semitic Arcadians (the Assyrian language was one of dialects of the Accadian), and then by new Semitic newcomers - the Amorites. Soon, the mixture of these tribes mastered the areas between the Tigris river and its tributaries, the Great and Small Zab. The economic basis of the Assyrians were based on ownership of small estates and trade. Huge political flexibility and good organization allowed them to set up important trade colonies in Minor Asia, where Assyrian merchants acted, exchanging the articles of native crafts on raw materials which were necessary for the survival of the state. In that time (so-called the Old Assyrian Period, XIX - XIV century), the Assyrians started to undertake offensive wars. However, these wars were carried out on a limited scale.
In the fifteenth century immigration processes led to the emergence of non - Semite peoples , who, however, quickly assimilated with the Accadians and the Amorites. The newly formed society and the Middle Kingdom (1400 - 1070), initially was subjugated to a new Middle East power, Mitanni. Continuous threat was also Babylon (south), Urartu (currently in Armenia, from the north east) and the Hittites (west). The Assyrians finally, with a help from Egypt, gained independence from Mitanni. To the position of a superpower brought the country king Tikulti-Ninurta (1235 - 1198), who victoriously fought against the Hittites, Urartu and Babylon.
200 years of struggle with the powerful neighbours did not only not put an end to the Assyrians, but on the contrary, consolidated the state and created the strongest army of that period. A powerful army was essential to functioning of a strong state. Difficult climatic and farmer conditions in northern Mesopotamia, cut-off from traditional, rich farmland of southern Mesopotamia and commercial colonies by the Syrians, poverty of raw materials (like stone, wood, metal), forced the Assyrians to seek new sources of raw materials. The only left possibility was military expansion which could bring wealth by tributes, loots and exploitation of conquered lands. The natural direction of expansion, from the very beginning, became rich Babylonia. Collapse of Mitanni, the weakness of Egypt and Babylon, and numerous fights against the Amorites, encourage a process of conquest of new lands. To the position of a superpower Assyria came again during the reign of Aszurnasirpal II (884 - 859), (the Neo Assrian period 884 - 608), when had shaped a new form of state based on a strong army, whose task was to acquire new lands and provide protection to sources of raw materials and agricultural products.
For most of the time of the existence of the state, the Assyrian army was not strictly professional formation. The army was little different from armies of other Mesopotamian states. There were a few professional soldiers , and their role was limited to the tasks of patrolling borders and protecting the ruler and his family. In the event of war the levy was raised. Every warrior was arriving with his own equipment and food. He was armed with the weapons which he could afford to get. The aristocrats fought on chariots (pull by two horses), the less wealthy men made up cavalry, people of moderate means made up heavy infantry, the poor fought as light infantry, using simple weapons like bows, maces and clubs. The highest level of training represented the royal military unit, Guratu (the Brave Ones), which stood on the royal family guard. The Brave Ones consisted of 1000 well-trained soldiers. Not until VIII century the Assyrians had a professional army. Professionalization of the army was started during Tyglaptilesar III' reign (745-727), who created the first regular army, at the expense of state. It was made up from compulsory recruited, mainly poor peasant, crowd. Professionalization of the army had utmost importance for the country. So far, war campaigns often had been reduced to a few months. For the period of harvest, peasants, who were the backbone of every army, had to return to their homes. It was helping the enemy to renew their strength and reorganised defence. This obstacle had been removed because the military obligation rested from now on peasants, also in the summer period.
Tactical efficiency was increased. It was based on a combination of various types of soldiers, working closely with each other.
The basis unit became – one chariot, two riders, four heavy infantrmen and eight light armed footsoldiers. Soldiers worn tunics to mid-thigh (which replaced the long robes), shoulders on half open, the legs covered with long, laced shoes. The head was protected by helmet or cap. The linen or leather armor was covered with small, metal plates (for the sake of flexibility). Assyrians introduced for the first time at a large-scale army armed in in the hardest well-known then material – iron Althought the iron was invented by the Hittites, this nation had not been able to distribute the metal on such scale like Assyrians. To increase efficiency of their army, Assyrians displaced thousands Hittite blacksmiths, who had to forge hard and sharp weaponery for the Assyrian army.
One of the main factors of the Assyrian superiority over their opponents, was the introduction of large squadrons of cavalry, which numbered between several hundred to a thousand riders. The squadrons were introduced around the 860 year, in response to the Medes and other nomadic tribes' invasions. The cavalry greatly strengthened the power of the army. Military commanders particularly cared for the development of this part of the army. Lack of natural grasslands essential for breeding, forced the Assyrians to import horses from vassal countries, Egypt, Medes, Minor Asia, as well confiscate horses from their enemies. Special logistic units were also introduced (called Musarkisus), with the task of breeding new horses. Within a month they were able to provide around 3 thousand horses for the army. The main task of the cavalry was to encirclement the enemy's flanks and block its rear, in order to prevent any withdraw. It helped, the Assyrian chariots and infantry to complete destruction of surrounded enemy's forces. The ability of horsemen to move quickly on difficult terrains made cavalry particularly effective as a chase unit. The cavalry was quite effective in fight against different enemies like ruffian Medes, who constantly attacked the kingdom. Assyrian retaliatory expedition were possible only thanks to the cavalry, which was able to fight in both flat and mountainous terrains. For the same reason, the horsemen were used to reconnaissances and to protection marching columns of footsoldiers. The Assyrian riders were armed with spears and daggers of an average length. There was also separated unites of horse archers, who, however, were not always effective. The absence of the saddle and harness, hindered riding and shooting at the same time.
Chariots, pull by two or three (and later four) horses, were yet another effective and lethal offensive force. Soldiers serving in those squads formed,by the royal guard, the army's elite. Assyrian battle cart was heavy vehicle, served by four soldiers (shooter, driver, two men to hold a round shield and support). Initially awkward carts could not quickly manewrowaa, and enemy infantry defended itself against them, removing themself from the road. The invention of metal chassis made the Assyrian chariots shapely and easy to manoeuvring. Chariots squads(about 50 carts) used both in centre, as to surround the enemy Mobile chariots introduced a very important element of "shock" in the fight, impossible to use byinfantry. This tactic consisted of a rapid impact on the enemy from as many
directions as possible. The task of the chariot was the use of its mass and impact, which had to spread panic and chaos. The crew (initially two and later three-and-four men),was armed with far-reaching bows, which could reach enemy from great distances. Upon contact with the opponent, the crew fought with spears and axes, if necessary going down from the cart. After the breakdown enemy’s infantry ranks, chariots were taking part in an extremely effective and bloody chases. Chariot was the only weapon that could be used at each stage of the battle with equal effectiveness. The mobility of squads of chariots made possible, to exploit every weak point in the enemy’s ranks, as well to come with the help to vulnerable sections of own ranks.
Infantry, recruiting from poor peasants made up the main strength and the largest part of the Assyrian army. Fully trained infantry troops easily cooperated with other units. The infantry was divided in companies from 50 to 200 soldiers of different weapons, depending on the tactical requirements. An important infantry weapon was a bow of an average size (most likely compositional one), a sappara sword and a dagger. Archers formed the first line during battle. Bows had a carrying capacity from 250 to 650 meters, while the effectiveness to piercing a bronze armor was from a distance of 100 meters. In quiver there were about 50 arrows ended with metal arrow-heads. The invention quiver carried on a shoulder, increased the destruction power of Assyrian archers by as much as 40 per cent (quick drawing of arrows). the craftsmanship of Assyrian archers aroused fear among all opponents. The archers were divided into squads, which often have the support of shield bearers. Each archer then had the protection of a person holding a large, conical shield, protecting him against the enemy’s arrows. Shield was the height of an adult human and was made from reed's withes. In the same line stood spearmen which were the backbone of infantry. As a rule, the squads of spearmen moved slowly forward, smashing the resistance of the enemy’s lines.
Army moved to combat in months, that priests found favourable. The command belonged to the king or to replacing him General, bearing the name Tartanu. About the war decided the ruler who had obtained the advice of people from his nearest surroundings. A particular supporter of war was always strong in Assyria, the military fraction. Also, the priests supported wars, which provided both groups enormous wealth. War was thought to be fulfilling the will of god Assura. The believe in him allowed to consolidate all Assyrians and squeezed out the stigma of cruelty, which had not equivalent in ancient history. The kings, who were not sufficiently eager for wars, stood before the risks of being murder by commanders and priests. Such fate did no even pass such an outstanding ruler like Tikulti-Ninurta, who for unknown reasons, stopped his victorious conquests and began a peaceful existence.
All war expeditions were prepared in similar way. Troopers from each province were assembled in the largest cities. Each governor was intended to provide a fixed number of soldiers. Army then passes through dependent lands, which the rulers were obliged to prove material support, food and sometimes even auxiliary troops. It could happend that the vassals lodge tribute of gold, which then were sent back to Assyria. Thanks to professionalize the army, the war campaigns were conducted at any time of year, what is an evidence of high-level organisational of Assyrians. Most Assyrians’ opponents were not willing to fight in inconvenient winter months or during harvest time. The ability to carry out military activities whether in a very mountain area or boggy one, in addition to any time of year and regardless of the weather, was the result of possession of engineers and specialized units of logistical support. The engineers units mostly consisted of prisoners of war, built roads, dried the swamps , undermined the fortresses, built the pontoon bridges, prepared cobbled roads for chariots and other troops. These military roads connected different parts of the country. special technicall troops always accompanied the army, repairing chariots, providing the machines to besieging the fortresses, batter rams, food, tents and weapons.
Assyrians became famous with their ability of rapid captering fortresses and fortified cities. The key to success was the use of several methods of attack, simultaneously and in different places. The combined attact tactic was aimed to accumulate in one place overwhelming force, which the defenders could not put up with. Sappers had been doing saps under walls, which gradually were enlarge and support with rafters. Then the sappers set fire to the rafters and part of the wall was collapsing. Defenders defened themselfs against this by digging tunnels under enemy. Siege equipment was developed wery well, too. Batter ram on wheels were taken near the walls in several places at the same time. Powerful strikes breached both stone and brick walls. At the same time other soldiers carried out the attack on the walls using short (up to weakening and making holes in the wall) and high-ladder (to direct assault). Height wooden towers were an additional advantage (12 meters). They were higher than most walls of the besieged city. The crews of these towers consisted mainly archers, who provide protection for the assault troops.
Assyrians preferred quick, but bringing big losses in human lives attacks, than long-term sieges. This was aimed to frighten the townsmen of other cities and forcing them to surrender without a fight. Captured city, was treated very cruelly. After getting the city the Assyrian king sat on the throne before the gates. Prisoners-of-war march past before him, and then were murdered. Their heads were cut off, and then scrupulously counted and arrange in huge pyramid. The defeated ruler had plucked his eyes out, and then was locked in a cage. Royal wives and daughters were taken away to Assyrian harems. Often the children of the defeated rulers were taken away to the Assyrian royal court, where they were brought up in fear or love for the winners. Sometimes they sat down in their fathers'
countries, as Assyrian vassals. Women were usually sold into slavery. The most rebellious cities were destroyed entirely and their population was murdered as a whole. Children were throned into fire, adults were impaled on poles, their skin was peeled off alive and eyes plucked out. Very often children and craftsmen were displaced to Assyria, where there waited for them a very hard work and short life in very difficult conditions. The climax of Assyrian atrocities fell on the period of governance Tiglapilesara I (1116 - 1078), who conquered Babylon, the north - Mezopotamie western, northern Syria, Fenicje and Cyprus. The fate of the defeated had intimidate those who thought about rebelling. Over time, some Assyrian rulers were forced to diminish their severity to conquered nations. In the face of continuous wars, new enemies, absence of its own craft and farming (Assyria peasants were forced to continued military service), depopulations of entire regions (threat to the trade), Assyrian kings began to apply the tactic of mass deportation of people along with their belongings and stocks.
Assyria had not only the best weapons and tactics at that time, but also the best-prepared military organizational structure. In the last centuries of the existence of the state, the Assyrian army was divided into two parts. One part was stationed in the conquered countries, and the other was quarterd in proper Assyria and was scheduled for the immediate help vulnerable sections of the empire. For the first time in history it was a professional army with recruitment on so huge scale. In its ranks fought also hired soldiers from Greece, Filistynii, Syrians and other nationalities. The Assyria vassal states were also obliged to supply their militia. In particular, this process intensified during the reign of Tiglapilesara III, which sought to recruit foreigners as infantry and Assyrians as horsemen and warriors fighting on chariots. Mobilisation capacities could enter into account of 700 thousand recruits. Nevertheless, as a rule, the military unit counted 150 - 200 thousand soldiers, which around 50 thousand made up the field army. In charge of every unit stood highly experienced professional officers who had gone throughout training officers courses. The staff of the Assyrian army was the best - next to the Roman one – in ancient times. Well-developed logistics facilities were engaged in the production, repair, storage and creation of new types of weapons. Huge military store-houses full of different weapons were scattered throughout the country.
The collapse of state finally took place in 607 years. During the reign of the last Assyrian rulers army largely lost its national character. Nearly every Assyrian newly chosen ruler had to fight against rebelling cities, conquered nations or his relatives, who were unwilling to recognise the new authority and sought freedom. The rulers in the place of disappearing as a result of permanent wars and mutinies, Assyrian peasants, began to recruit Scythian mercenaries. The situation after the death of Asubanipala (627 r), the last great ruler, was very tense. Babylon had became independent, which Assyrians never managed to recover. One of the Assyrian commanders sent to recapture the city had betrayed, and the other army was overcome by the Babylonians. Assur, the former capital, was seized by the Medes (614), and on its rubbles the enemies of Assyria concluded alliance. Actually, Assyrians resistance was broken with the collapse strongly fortify capital - Nineveh - in 612 year. Oblegaj1ce it branches Media, babilonskie and scytyjskie, managed to capture it after three months of fighting, only because of the fact that one of the rivers which flow through the city, overflow and destroyed part of the walls, through which the attackers broke in. Conquerors' vengeance was huge. Almost all Assyrian population was exterminated and the terrains of Assyria for centuries remained unpopulated.